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The ability for modern religious communities to adapt and听innovate听rituals in light of circumstances, then, has deep and very听productive roots

As the coronavirus pandemic spreads across the globe, it is affecting how families celebrate important religious events such as听, which would normally involve the gathering of families.

For example, in Judaism, Passover, which commemorates the听听of the Israelites from Egypt, involves younger and older generations dramatizing the events of slavery in Egypt and the recitation of a liturgy called the 鈥�.鈥�

The recitation of certain听听at Passover, like many other ritual celebrations in some orthodox Jewish communities, involves a听, or a quorum of 10, traditionally male, participants. Highly interactive Passover meals, or Seders, include games for children, such as finding the听, part of an unleavened wafer that is hidden, the discovery of which is often rewarded with a prize.

Since many families cannot gather in person, leaders of congregations have said that being in the same 鈥溾�� according to the traditional understanding can accommodate virtual presence. Some of the Passover Seder traditions are occurring through videoconferencing tools such as听.听

As a听historian of the Bible, I know听Passover听has long been a platform for听. A particularly important example of a similar sort of ritual innovation occurred when the temple in Jerusalem was destroyed, twice.听

Following the destruction, the way that Jewish communities worshiped God changed forever.

Temple worship

The temple in Jerusalem occupies an important place in both听听thought. David, the king of Israel who ruled from around 1010 to 970 B.C., is said to have first envisioned the temple. It was, however, built by his son听.听

The temple played a central role in ancient Israelite worship. According to the Bible, the temple in Jerusalem was where God听. The belief was that as long as God remained in Jerusalem, the city would be indestructible.听

In 701 B.C., a king named Sennacherib tried to invade Jerusalem but was unsuccessful. The military campaign devastated the surrounding villages, but Jerusalem survived. According to some biblical texts, God had chosen the temple as a听.

Sacrifices were performed in the temple to ensure that God stayed forever in Jerusalem. The belief was that the sacrifices provided听.听

The blood from the sacrifices was also听. It was believed that sinful actions of Israelites could travel through the air, generating a stain, called a 鈥�.鈥澨�

This stain was believed to stick to various parts of the temple. According to the Book of Leviticus, in the Old Testament, the more important the person in Israelite society committing the sin, the closer the stain would land to the place where God was believed to have lived, called the 鈥淗oly of Holies.鈥澨�

罢丑别听听was applied to these places, making God鈥檚 dwelling clean and tidy.

As such, these sacrifices were designed to keep God happy and they were essential to maintaining order in the divine dwelling.

Religious reordering

Except that the biblical texts claim that God did not stay in the temple forever. According to the Book of Ezekiel in the Bible, God became unhappy with the state of affairs in Jerusalem and听听the temple.

Following the听听Jerusalem was no longer indestructible. In听, Nebuchadnezzar, a Babylonian king, conquered Jerusalem and destroyed the temple.

The temple was rebuilt around 515 B.C. But this 鈥溾�� too was destroyed, this time by the Romans in A.D. 70.

This destruction left Jewish leaders with profound questions. Without a temple, they asked, how could people access God and听?听

Another vital question before them was: How were these Jewish communities to relate to God, particularly in view of the commands of sacrifice in the Bible, when the temple was gone?听

Ritual innovation

Religious texts were believed to hold answers for听听these disasters occurred.听

According to the scholar听, Jewish prophets and sages explained that these events were 鈥淕od鈥檚 punishment鈥� for the failure to 鈥渙bey the divine laws.鈥澨�

As a result, those who survived were 鈥渞esolved to learn the lesson of history鈥� by studying ancient texts and performing the laws as God intended. In this way, it was believed, they would find 鈥渇avor with God鈥� and 鈥渉ead off another disaster,鈥� according to Kugel.

Other scholars, such as听听补苍诲听, have argued that the same biblical texts were also thought to contain the key for constructing听. In fact, these texts gave license for ritual innovation in light of changing historical circumstances.听

Such innovations were often, though not always, grounded in sacred texts and traditions. That way they had a听.听

Adapting to change

It was through this process that prayer in the Jewish tradition came to be seen as a form of sacrifice.听

Both the act of sacrifice and prayer听听the divine and human realms. Some passages in the Bible made the connection explicit.

For example,听, which says, 鈥淭ake my prayer as an offering of incense, my upraised hands as an evening sacrifice,鈥� drew similarities between prayer and sacrifice. So did another book in the Bible 鈥撎�, which says, 鈥淚nstead of bulls we will pay the offering of our lips.鈥澨�

The verses even put prayer and sacrifice in parallel poetic lines as a way to almost equate the actions.听

In fact, the prayer in Judaism known as the 鈥溾�� was conceived as a substitute for sacrifice very shortly after the destruction of the Second Temple.

The destruction of the temple created unimaginable crises in the religious sensibilities of ancient Jews, but also became a platform to reimagine how religious ritual worked.听

The ability for modern religious communities to adapt and听听rituals in light of circumstances, then, has deep and very听.

This is an听听of a piece first published on March 24, 2020.

This article is republished from under a Creative Commons license. Read the .

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